The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy scale (LSRP) is a 26-item, 4-point Likert scale, self-report inventory to measure primary and secondary psychopathy in non-institutionalised populations. It was developed in 1995 by Michael R. Levenson, Kent A. Kiehl and Cory M. Fitzpatrick. The scale was created for the purpose of conducting a psychological study examining antisocial disposition among a sample of 487 undergraduate students attending psychology classes at the University of California, Davis.
Primary and Secondary Psychopathy
Background
Benjamin Karpman first theorised that psychopathy should be divided into two clinical subtypes in 1941. He believed that psychopathy presented itself in either a symptomatic or idiopathic manner. Symptomatic psychopathy referred to an individual who would exhibit psychopathic traits usually as a result of an underlying psychoneurosis or character neurosis. Idiopathic psychopathy, on the other hand, presented itself without a cause and rarely reacted to treatment. Karpman's theory has helped researchers to identify two subgroups of those who display psychopathic traits. These were subsequently labelled as primary and secondary psychopaths.
Primary Psychopathy
The subtype known as "primary" psychopathy refers to individuals who are completely rational, lack anxiety and have high levels of interpersonal charm. Whilst these behaviours appear incredibly adaptive, primary psychopaths are also prone to dysfunctional and pathological traits such as an inability to learn from past mistakes and a lack of responsibility. Primary psychopaths may present few symptoms of having a major psychological disorder. This may go hand in hand with the more manipulative personality traits characterising primary psychopathic behaviour. In addition, manipulation is also a key component featured in the Dark Triad personality test (Machiavellianism), which is positively correlated with primary psychopathy. It has also been further suggested that primary psychopathy and Machiavellianism reflect similar constructs, with Machiavellian behaviour being positively associated with the main traits of primary psychopathy. Further research has shown that psychopathy and Machiavellianism are "barely distinguishable" and features of the two often "overlap". This is further supported by research showing that Machiavellianism and primary psychopathy are situated in much of the same areas of the Interpersonal Circumplex., i.e., "cold-hearted" and "high dominance" sections. Other traits include impaired interpersonal skills, not being able to function adequately in social situations due to the mere nature of the traits such as a lack of empathy.
Secondary Psychopathy
"Secondary" psychopaths are individuals not dissimilar to primary psychopaths in the sense that they still share many of the same characteristics and traits. However, unlike the primary psychopath, the secondary psychopath is more likely to suffer from intense emotional arousal and psychological issues. As well as this, research conducted on adult psychopaths has suggested that secondary psychopaths are more prone to participate in drug abuse, suicide and interpersonal aggression. Research suggests that secondary psychopathic traits may include remorse and being more tense in contrast to individuals labelled as primary psychopaths. Karpman believed that behaviours carried out by secondary psychopaths aren’t grounded in lack of empathy which is seen in primary psychopaths. An integral finding amongst secondary psychopathic traits is the tendency to be less risk averse and more risk tolerant. For example, a study showed that individuals with secondary psychopathic traits were more likely to consistently choose cards with considerably higher net loses opposed to ones that posed less risk and gain. This is consistent with other research, which also suggests a consistent positive association between impulsivity and secondary psychopathy. Whilst controlling for impulsivity, risky decision making was still prevalent amongst secondary psychopathic behaviour. Overall, what differentiates secondary psychopaths from primary psychopaths is their destructive behaviour as well an increased reactivity and impulsivity and an inability to control their emotions effectively.