Goldbach's conjecture is one of the oldest and best-known unsolved problems in number theory and all of mathematics. It states that every even natural number greater than 2 is the sum of two prime numbers.
The conjecture has been shown to hold for all integers less than , but remains unproven despite considerable effort.
History
On 7 June 1742, the Prussian mathematician Christian Goldbach wrote a letter to Leonhard Euler (letter XLIII), in which he proposed the following conjecture:
Goldbach was following the now-abandoned convention of considering 1 to be a prime number, so that a sum of units would be a sum of primes. He then proposed a second conjecture in the margin of his letter, which implies the first:
Euler replied in a letter dated 30 June 1742 and reminded Goldbach of an earlier conversation they had had (), in which Goldbach had remarked that the first of those two conjectures would follow from the statement
This is in fact equivalent to his second, marginal conjecture. In the letter dated 30 June 1742, Euler stated:
Each of the three conjectures above has a natural analog in terms of the modern definition of a prime, under which 1 is excluded. A modern version of the first conjecture is:
A modern version of the marginal conjecture is:
And a modern version of Goldbach's older conjecture of which Euler reminded him is:
These modern versions might not be entirely equivalent to the corresponding original statements. For example, if there were an even integer larger than 4, for a prime, that could not be expressed as the sum of two primes in the modern sense, then it would be a counterexample to the modern version of the third conjecture (without being a counterexample to the original version). The modern version is thus probably stronger (but in order to confirm that, one would have to prove that the first version, freely applied to any positive even integer , could not possibly rule out the existence of such a specific counterexample ). In any case, the modern statements have the same relationships with each other as the older statements did. That is, the second and third modern statements are equivalent, and either implies the first modern statement.
The third modern statement (equivalent to the second) is the form in which the conjecture is usually expressed today. It is also known as the "strong", "even", or "binary" Goldbach conjecture. A weaker form of the second modern statement, known as "Goldbach's weak conjecture", the "odd Goldbach conjecture", or the "ternary Goldbach conjecture", asserts that
A proof for the weak conjecture was submitted in 2013 by Harald Helfgott to Annals of Mathematics Studies series. Although the article was accepted, Helfgott decided to undertake the major modifications suggested by the referee. Despite several revisions, Helfgott's proof has not yet appeared in a peer-reviewed publication. The weak conjecture is implied by the strong conjecture, as if is a sum of two primes, then is a sum of three primes. However, the converse implication and thus the strong Goldbach conjecture would remain unproven if Helfgott's proof is correct.
Verified results
For small values of , the strong Goldbach conjecture (and hence the weak Goldbach conjecture) can be verified directly. For instance, in 1938, Nils Pipping laboriously verified the conjecture up to . With the advent of computers, many more values of have been checked; T. Oliveira e Silva ran a distributed computer search that has verified the conjecture for (and double-checked up to ) as of 2013. One record from this search is that is the smallest number that cannot be written as a sum of two primes where one is smaller than 9781.
Cully-Hugill and Dudek prove a (partial and conditional) result on the Riemann hypothesis: there exists a sum of two odd primes in the interval (x, x + 9696 log^2 x] for all x ≥ 2.
Heuristic justification
Statistical considerations that focus on the probabilistic distribution of prime numbers present informal evidence in favour of the conjecture (in both the weak and strong forms) for sufficiently large integers: the greater the integer, the more ways there are available for that number to be represented as the sum of two or three other numbers, and the more "likely" it becomes that at least one of these representations consists entirely of primes.