International relations from 1648 to 1814 covers the major interactions of the nations of Europe, as well as the other continents, with emphasis on diplomacy, warfare, migration, and cultural interactions, from the Peace of Westphalia to the Congress of Vienna.
Historical developments
Balance of power: The concept of the balance of power emerged as a fundamental principle in international relations during this period. Major powers sought to maintain a delicate equilibrium to prevent the domination of any single state or coalition, often leading to alliances, territorial adjustments, and military interventions.
Diplomatic history: The establishment of formal diplomatic practices and treaty systems became more widespread. Major international agreements, such as the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Peace of Utrecht (1713), redefined territorial boundaries, recognized states' sovereignty, and shaped the norms and practices of diplomacy.
Colonialism and imperialism: European powers engaged in extensive colonial expansion during this period, leading to occasional imperial rivalries. Competition over resources, trade routes, and territories fueled conflicts between the powers, most notably the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).
Wars over succession and territory: Numerous conflicts erupted due to succession disputes and territorial claims. Wars like the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) and the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) reshaped European borders and power dynamics, with consequences extending beyond the continent.
Rise of British and French naval power: The period saw the rise of naval power as a crucial determinant of international influence. Naval dominance, particularly by the British Royal Navy and its great archrival France. The navies enabled projection of power, control over trade routes, and territorial expansion into overseas colonies.
Economic and commercial interests: Economic considerations played a vital role in international relations during this period. Expansion of trade, mercantilist policies, and the development of global markets influenced diplomatic relations, wars, and alliances as states sought to protect and expand their economic interests.
Revolution: The Age of Enlightenment and subsequent revolutions, such as the American Revolution (1775-1783) and the French Revolution (1789-1799), challenged traditional monarchical systems and aristocratic privileges. These movements had profound implications for international relations, inspiring other revolutionary movements and challenging the existing order.
Diplomacy and warfare
The 17th century, 1601–1700, saw very little peace in Europe – major wars were fought every year except 1610, 1669 to 1671, and 1680 to 1682. The wars were unusually ugly. Europe in the late 17th century, 1648 to 1700, was an age of great intellectual, scientific, artistic and cultural achievement. Historian Frederick Nussbaum says it was: prolific in genius, in common sense, and in organizing ability. It could properly have been expected that intelligence, comprehension and high purpose would be applied to the control of human relations in general and to the relations between states and peoples in particular. The fact was almost completely opposite. It was a period of marked unintelligence, immorality and frivolity in the conduct of international relations, marked by wars undertaken for dimly conceived purposes, waged with the utmost brutality and conducted by reckless betrayals of allies.
The worst came during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) which had an extremely negative impact on the civilian population of Germany and surrounding areas, with massive loss of life and disruption of the economy and society. Scholars taking a "realist" perspective on wars and diplomacy have emphasized the Peace of Westphalia (1648) as a dividing line. It ended the Thirty Years' War, where religion and ideology had been powerful motivating forces for warfare. Westphalia, in the realist view, ushered in a new international system of sovereign states of roughly equal strength, dedicated not to ideology or religion but to enhance status, and territorial gains. The Catholic Church, for example, no longer devoted its energies to the very difficult task of reclaiming dioceses lost to Protestantism, but to build large-scale missions in overseas colonial possessions that could convert the natives by the thousands using devoted members of society such as the Jesuits. According to Scott Hamish, the realist model assumes that "foreign policies were guided entirely by "Realpolitik," by the resulting struggle for resources and, eventually, by the search for what became known as a 'balance of power.'