GRADUATE (Med. Lat. _graduare_, to admit to an academical degree, _gradus_), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the academical sense intransitively, i.e. "to take or proceed to a university degree," and figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, or proficiency in, anything. The original transitive sense of "to confer or admit to a degree" is, however, still preserved in America, where the word is, moreover, not strictly confined to university degrees, but is used also of those successfully completing a course of study at any educational establishment. As a substantive, a "graduate" (Med. Lat. _graduatus_) is one who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have matriculated at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are known as "undergraduates." The word "student," used of undergraduates e.g. in Scottish universities, is never applied generally to those of the English and Irish universities. At Oxford the only "students" are the "senior students" (i.e. fellows) and "junior students" (i.e. undergraduates on the foundation, or "scholars") of Christ Church. The verb "to graduate" is also used of dividing anything into degrees or parts in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application see GRADUATION below. It may also mean "to arrange in gradations" or "to adjust or apportion according to a given scale." Thus by "a graduated income-tax" is meant the system by which the percentage paid differs according to the amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.
GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE), the art of dividing straight scales, circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required number of equal parts. It is the most important and difficult part of the work of the mathematical instrument maker, and is required in the construction of most physical, astronomical, nautical and surveying instruments.
The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the teeth of their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was confined to them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in its performance was required. This only arose when astronomy began to be seriously studied, and the exact position of the heavenly bodies to be determined, which created the necessity for strictly accurate means of measuring linear and angular magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art which required special talents and training, and the best artists gave great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments. Of these may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John Bird (1709-1776), John Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800), John Troughton, Edward Troughton (1753-1835), William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross.