Commissioned office in the English and later British Army could be purchased for either infantry or cavalry regiments from the 17th to 19th centuries. This avoided the need to wait to be promoted for merit or seniority, and was the usual way to obtain a commission in the Army. The practice began in 1683, during the reign of King Charles II, and continued until it was abolished on 1 November 1871, as part of the Cardwell Reforms. Formally, the purchase price of a commission was a cash bond for good behaviour, liable to be forfeited if found guilty of cowardice, desertion, or gross misconduct.
Great Britain and Ireland
Only commissions in cavalry and infantry regiments could be purchased and therefore only those up to the rank of colonel. Commissions in the Royal Engineers and the Royal Artillery were awarded to those who graduated from a course at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and subsequent promotion was by seniority. Also, the Royal Navy never practised the sale of commissions, with advancement in officer ranks being solely by merit or seniority, at least in theory (in practice, the requirement for new officers to purchase expensive uniforms and study materials restricted naval commissions to sons of the middle and upper classes).
Justifications for the practice
There were several rationalisations for the sale of commissions: It served as a form of collateral against abuse of authority or gross negligence or incompetence. Disgraced officers could be cashiered by the crown (that is, deprived of their commission without reimbursement). It ensured that the officer class was largely filled by persons having a vested interest in maintaining the social and political status quo; thereby reducing the possibility of the military participating in a revolution or coup. It ensured that officers had some private means and were less likely to engage in looting or pillaging or to cheat the soldiers they commanded by profiteering with army supplies. It provided honourably retired officers with an immediate source of capital upon leaving the service. It preserved the social exclusivity of the officer class.
Values
The official values of commissions varied by branch (see below). Payments in excess of regulation (non-official) usually accorded with the differing social prestige of different regiments.
For example, in 1837 the costs of commissions were:
These prices were incremental. To purchase a promotion, an officer only had to pay the difference in price between his existing rank and the desired rank.
Regimental and social factors
Theoretically, a commission could be sold only for its official value and was to be offered first to the next most senior officer in the same regiment. In practice, there was also an unofficial "over-regulation price" or "regimental value", which might double the official cost. Desirable commissions in fashionable regiments were often sold to the highest bidder after an auction. A self-interested senior officer might well regard his commission as his pension fund and would encourage the increase of its value. An officer who incurred or inherited debts might sell his commission to raise funds.
Social exclusiveness was preserved not only by money, as regimental colonels were permitted to – and often did – refuse the purchase of a commission in their regiment by a man who had the necessary money but was not from a social background to their liking. This was especially the case in the Household and Guards regiments, which were dominated by the nobility. Elsewhere, however, it was not unknown for Colonels to lend deserving senior non-commissioned officers or warrant officers the funds necessary to purchase commissions.
Not all first commissions or promotions were paid for. If an officer was killed in action or appointed to the Staff (usually through being promoted to Major General), this created a series of "non-purchase vacancies" within his regiment. These could also occur when new regiments or battalions were created, or when the establishments of existing units were expanded. However, all vacancies resulting from officers dying of disease, retiring (whether on full or half pay) or resigning their commissions were "purchase vacancies". A period, usually of several years, had to elapse before an officer who succeeded to a non-purchase vacancy could sell his commission. For instance, if a Captain were promoted to Major to fill a non-purchase vacancy but decided to quit the Army immediately afterwards, he would receive only the value of his Captain's commission.