[Footnote 156: Barrington published a number of papers on this question, which are collected in the work whose title is given above, of which there were two editions. ]
[Footnote 157: At several places in his _Mittheilungen_, 1855-79. ]
[Footnote 158: That thin sheets of ice are formed in clear and calm weather, even in the open sea and over great depths, was observed several times during the expedition of 1868. But when we consider that salt water has no maximum of density situated above the freezing-point, that ice is a bad conductor of heat, and that the clear, newly-formed ice is soon covered by a layer of snow which hinders radiation, it appears to me to be improbable that the ice-covering at deep, open places can become so thick that it is not broken up even by a moderate storm. Even the shallow harbour at Mussel Bay first froze permanently in the beginning of February, and in the end of January the swell in the harbour was so heavy, that all the three vessels of the Swedish Expedition were in danger of being wrecked--_in consequence of the tremendous sea in 80° N.L. in the end of January!_ The sea must then have been open very far to the north-west On the west coast of Spitzbergen the sea in winter is seldom completely frozen within sight of land. Even at Barents' winter haven on the north-east coast of Novaya Zemlya, the sea during the coldest season of the year was often free of ice, and Hudson's statement, "that it is not surprising that the navigator falls in with so much ice in the North Atlantic, when there are so many sounds and bays on Spitzbergen," shows that even he did not believe in any ice being formed in the open sea. ]
The North-east Voyages of the Russians and Norwegians-- Rodivan Ivanov, 1690--The great Northern Expedition, 1734-37 --The supposed richness in metals of Novaya Zemlya-- Juschkov, 1757--Savva Loschkin, 1760--Rossmuislov, 1768-- Lasarev, 1819--Lütke, 1821-24--Ivanov, 1822-28-- Pachtussov, 1832-35--Von Baer, 1837--Zivolka and Moissejev, 1838-39--Von Krusenstern, 1860-62--The Origin and History of the Polar Sea Hunting--Carlsen, 1868--Ed. Johannesen, 1869-70--Ulve, Mack, and Quale, 1870--Mack, 1871-- Discovery of the Relics of Barents' wintering--Tobiesen's wintering, 1872-73--The Swedish Expeditions, 1875 and 1876 --Wiggins, 1876--Later Voyages to and from the Yenisej.