The requirement to write answers to questions written or dictated, to satisfy a practical test (other than in teaching), and a clinical test in medicine, appear to be of later date.[1] The medieval candidate for the doctorate in medicine, although required to have attended practice before presenting himself, discussed as his thesis a purely theoretical question, often semi-theological in character, of which as an extreme example may be quoted "whether Adam had a navel."
The competitive system was developed considerably at Louvain, and in the 15th century the candidates for the mastership of arts were divided into three classes (_rigorosi_, honour-men; _transibiles_, pass-men; _gratiosi_, charity-passes), while a fourth, which was not published, contained the names of those who failed. In the 17th century the first class comprised the names of twelve, and the second, of twenty-four, candidates, who were divided on the report of their teachers into classes before the examination, and finally arranged in order of merit by the examiners (Vernulaeus, quoted by Sir W. Hamilton, _Discussions_, 1852; p. 647; Rashdall, loc. cit. ii. 262). At the Cambridge tripos (as described by Jebb in 1774, _Remarks_, &c., pp. 20-31) the first twenty-four candidates were also selected by a preliminary test; they were then divided further into "wranglers" (the disputants, _par excellence_) and _Senior Optimes_, the next twelve on the list being called the _Junior Optimes_. These names have in the mathematics tripos survived the procedure. (The name _Tripos_ is derived from the three-legged stool on which "an old bachilour," selected for the purpose, sat during his disputation with the senior bachelor of the year, who was required to propound two questions to him.)
The subjects in which the medieval universities examined were (i.) those of the trivium and quadrivium in the faculty of arts; (ii.) theology; (iii.) medicine; and (iv.) civil and canon law. The number of subjects in which examinations are held has since grown immensely. We can only sketch in outline the transformations of certain typical university systems of examinations.
At Oxford there is no record of a process of formal examination on books similar to that of Paris (Rashdall, ii. 442 et seq.), disputations being apparently the only test applied in its early history. Examinations were definitely introduced for the B.A. and M.A. degrees by Laud in 1636-1638 (Brodrick, _History of Oxford_, p. 114), but the standard prescribed was so much beyond the actual requirements of later times that it may be doubted if it was enforced. The studies fell in the 18th century into an "abject state," from which they were first raised by a statute passed in 1800 (_Report of Oxford University Commission of 1850-1852_, p. 60 et seq.), under which distinctions were first allotted to the ablest candidates for the bachelor's degree. Further changes were made in 1807 and 1825; and in 1830 a distinction was made between honours examinations of a more difficult character, at which successful candidates were divided into four classes, and pass examinations of an easier character. By the statutes of 1849 and 1858 an intermediate "Moderations" examination was instituted between the preliminary examination called "Responsions" and the final examination. Since 1850, although fresh subjects of examination have been introduced, no considerable change of system has been made.